The Expression of Knowledge

1 The Problem of Expression.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Knowledge.- 3. Assessing Knowledge.- 4. What Determines Expression?.- 5. Examples of the Problem.- 5.1. Normal Dissociation of Verbal Reports from Other Behaviors.- 5.2. Amnesia.- 5.3. Blindsight.- 5.4. Normal Human Learning and Retention.- 5.5. Normals Can Be like Amnesics in Dissociating Their Modes of Expression.- 5.6. Source Amnesia.- 5.7. Expression during Infancy.- 5.8. Infantile Amnesia.- 5.9. Expression of Knowledge in Animals.- 6. Retrieval of Memories.- 6.1. How Are Memories Retrieved?.- 6.2. Process Interference: Summary.- 7. References.- 2 Memory, Amnesia, and the Episodic/Semantic Distinction.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Episodic and Semantic Memory.- 3. Organic Amnesia.- 3.1. Retention of Recently Acquired Information.- 3.2. Acquisition and Retention of Skills.- 3.3. Organic Amnesia and the Episodic/Semantic Distinction.- 4. Hypnotic Amnesia.- 4.1. Source Amnesia.- 4.2. The Hull Studies: Evidence for the Acquisition of Skills.- 4.3. Hypnotic Amnesia and the Episodic/Semantic Distinction.- 5. Functional Retrograde Amnesia.- 5.1. Episodic/Semantic Dissociation: An Experiment with an N of l.- 6. Concluding Comments.- 6.1. Dissociation between Systems or Loss of Information?.- 6.2. How Many Memory Systems?.- 7. References.- 3 A Conditioning Analysis of Infant Memory: How Do We Know They Know What We Know They Knew?.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Inference of Memory Processing and Retention.- 2.1. Methodologies.- 2.2. Direct and Implicit Tests of Infant Visual Recognition Memory.- 2.3. Summary.- 3. A Conditioning Analysis of Infant Memory.- 3.1. Methodology.- 3.2. Initial Tests of Retention.- 4. Forgotten But Not Gone: The Reactivation of Infant Memory.- 4.1. Methodology.- 4.2. Analysis of Reactivation Effects.- 5. Summary and Conclusions.- 5.1. The Utility of Using Motivated Infants.- 5.2. The Organization of Infant Memory.- 5.3. The Significance of Reactivation for Theories of Development.- 6. References.- 4 Memory Retrieval Failures Produced by Changes in Drug State.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Common Drug Effects on Learning and Retention.- 2.1. Impairment of Memorization.- 2.2. Drug-Induced Retrieval Deficits.- 2.3. Drug Impairment of Performance.- 2.4. State-Dependent Retrieval.- 2.5. Combined Effects.- 2.6. Drug Discrimination Performance.- 3. A Conceptual History of State-Dependent Retrieval.- 3.1. Early Drug SDR Experiments.- 3.2. Contextual Stimulus Effects on Retrieval: Early Experiments.- 3.3. Neurological Theories of SDR.- 3.4. Early Drug-Discrimination Experiments.- 3.5. Sensory Interpretations of DDs and SDR.- 3.6. Experimental Tests of Sensory Models for DDs.- 3.7. Logical Positivism as Applied to DDs.- 3.8. Relationship of SDR to DDs.- 3.9. Status circa 1970.- 4. Recent Evidence about the Mechanism of SDR and DDS.- 4.1. Multiplicity of Drug States.- 4.2. Robustness of SDR.- 4.3. Contextual Stimuli: Recent Experiments.- 4.4. Threshold Dosages for SDR and DDs.- 4.5. Summary.- 5. References.- 5 Neuropeptides and Memory.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. Terminology and Methodology.- 2. Pro-opio-melanocortin fragments, Memory, and Cognition.- 2.1. Pro-opio-melanocortin Fragments in the Pituitary and the Brain.- 2.2. ACTH-Related Peptides and Memory.- 2.3. Effects of ?-endorphin and Fragments on Consolidation and Retrieval of Memory and on Problem-Solving Behavior.- 2.4. The ?-MSH: A Functional Antagonist of Endorphins and ACTH-Related Peptides on Memory Processes?.- 2.5. Multiplicity of Behavioral Information in Pro-opio-melanocortin: An Integration.- 2.6. Pro-opio-melanocortin Fragments, Memory, and Cognition in Man.- 3. Hypothalamic Neurosecretory Peptides in Memory and Cognition.- 3.1. Vasopressin and Oxytocin Affect Consolidation and Retrieval of Memory.- 3.2. Antiamnesic Effect of Vasopressin in the Rat.- 3.3. Vasopressin, Oxytocin, and Memory Processes: Localization of the Effects.- 3.4. Brain Amines and the Action of Vasopressin on Memory Processes.- 3.5. Vasopressin and Memory Functions in Man.- 4. Are Neuropeptides Indispensable for Memory and Cognition?.- 5. Conclusion.- 6. References.- 6 Memory, Remembering, and Amnesia.- 1. Introduction.- 2. On Ribot’s and Robbins’s Principles.- 3. On the Theory of Long-Term Decay.- 4. On the Theory of Memorial Displacement.- 5. On the Theory of Trace Amalgamation.- 6. On the Theory of Distributed Storage.- 7. On Storage of Completely Latent Memories.- 8. On the Functions of the Prefrontal Cortex.- 9. On the Functions of the Temporal Neocortex.- 10. Conclusion.- 11. References.- 7 The Hippocampus and the Expression of Knowledge.- 1. Introduction: Summational and Retrieval Processes.- 2. The Hippocampus and Memory.- 3. Hippocampal Ablation in Animals: An Overview.- 4. Conditional Operations.- 4.1. Motivational States.- 4.2. External Stimuli.- 4.3. Short-Term or Working Memory.- 4.4. Long-Term Memory.- 4.5. Episodic Memory.- 5. Retrieval during Acquisition.- 6. Dimensions.- 7. Transformations.- 8. Relations between Conditional and Summational Systems.- 8.1. Complementarity during the Formation of Hierarchies.- 8.2. Some Asides.- 8.3. Summational Systems as an Alternative to Conditional Ones.- 9. Summary.- 10. References.- 8 Motivation, Activation, and Behavioral Integration.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Behavioral Fragmentation and Reintegration Following Lateral Hypothalamic Damage.- 2.1. Ingestive Behavior.- 2.2. Predatory Attack.- 2.3. Sensorimotor Dysfunctions.- 2.4. Akinesia.- 3. Sensory Neglect: An Activational Deficit.- 4. Recovery of Motivated Behavior.- 4.1. The Role of Activation.- 4.2. Sources of Activation in Recovery: Afference and Reafference.- 4.3. Activation and Parkinsonism.- 5. Hypothalamic Activation of Patterned Reflexes.- 6. The Role of Activation in Development.- 6.1. Ingestive Behavior.- 6.2. Predatory Attack.- 7. Activation and Changing Concepts of the Reticular Formation.- 7.1. Activation versus Waking: Independent Dimensions.- 7.2. Activation versus Movement.- 8. Conclusions.- 9. References.- 9 Neurochemical Consequences of Stress: Intrusion of Nonassociative Factors in Behavioral Analysis.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Stress and Avoidance Behavior.- 2.1. Associative Processes.- 2.2. Nonassociative Processes.- 2.3. Dissociation of Associative and Nonassociative Factors.- 2.4. Limitations in the Analysis of Associative-Nonassociative Processes.- 3. Escape Behavior.- 3.1. Shock-Elicited Activity.- 3.2. Escape.- 3.3. Effects of Uncontrollable Stress.- 4. Stress and Neurochemical Change.- 4.1. Acute Stress.- 4.2. Coping Style.- 4.3. Chronic Stress.- 4.4. Sensitization (or Conditioning) of Stress-Induced Alterations.- 4.5. Contribution of Organismic and Social Variables.- 5. Pharmacological Manipulations and Avoidance Performance.- 5.1. Catecholamines.- 5.2. Serotonin.- 5.3. Acetylcholine.- 6. Pharmacological Manipulations and Escape Behavior.- 7. Analgesia.- 8. Summary.- 9. References.- 10 Lateralization of Emotional or Behavioral Responses in Intact and Hemisphere-Damaged Humans and Rats.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Noncortical Areas Involved in Human Emotion.- 3. Human Hemispheric Specialization in Normals.- 3.1. Anatomic Asymmetries.- 3.2. Arousal and Lateralization.- 3.3. Laterality Studies in Emotion.- 4. Human Clinicopathological Correlations.- 4.1. Lesion Studies.- 4.2. Psychiatric Illness: Emotional Lateralization.- 4.3. Stroke Studies: From Our Own Laboratory.- 5. Animal Studies and Lateralization.- 5.1. Animal Lateralization Studies.- 5.2. Experimental Stroke and Lateralization: Our Own Studies.- 6. Conclusions.- 7. References.- 11 Neural and Mental Capacities.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Habits.- 2.1. William James’s Views.- 2.2. The Interference Produced by Habits.- 3. Automatic and Voluntary Acts.- 4. Motor Systems and Mental Activity.- 5. Brain Damage and Performance.- 5.1. Lashley’s Studies of Neocortical Damage.- 5.2. Maier’s Studies of Neocortical Damage.- 5.3. Emotional Changes after Brain Damage.- 5.4. Perseverative Behavior.- 6. Frustration-Induced Perseveration.- 7. A Mental Currency.- 7.1. A Limited Capacity.- 7.2. The Rate of Action Unit Sampling.- 7.3. When Do Action Units Become Available?.- 8. Brain Damage and Mental Capacities.- 9. Reprise.- 10. References.